© 1999 by Oxford University Press
Journal of the National Cancer Institute, Vol. 91, No. 14, 1194-1210,
July 21, 1999
© 1999 Oxford University Press
REVIEW |
Tobacco Smoke Carcinogens and Lung Cancer
Correspondence to: Stephen S. Hecht, Ph.D., University of Minnesota Cancer Center, Box 806 Mayo, 420 Delaware St., S.E., Minneapolis, MN 55455 (e-mail: hecht002{at}tc.umn.edu).
The complexity of tobacco smoke leads to some confusion about the mechanisms by which it causes lung cancer. Among the multiple components of tobacco smoke, 20 carcinogens convincingly cause lung tumors in laboratory animals or humans and are, therefore, likely to be involved in lung cancer induction. Of these, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and the tobacco-specific nitrosamine 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone are likely to play major roles. This review focuses on carcinogens in tobacco smoke as a means of simplifying and clarifying the relevant information that provides a mechanistic framework linking nicotine addiction with lung cancer through exposure to such compounds. Included is a discussion of the mechanisms by which tobacco smoke carcinogens interact with DNA and cause genetic changes—mechanisms that are reasonably well understood—and the less well defined relationship between exposure to specific tobacco smoke carcinogens and mutations in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes. Molecular epidemiologic studies of gene-carcinogen interactions and lung cancer—an approach that has not yet reached its full potential—are also discussed, as are inhalation studies of tobacco smoke in laboratory animals and the potential role of free radicals and oxidative damage in tobacco-associated carcinogenesis. By focusing in this review on several important carcinogens in tobacco smoke, the complexities in understanding tobacco-induced cancer can be reduced, and new approaches for lung cancer prevention can be envisioned.
CiteULike 
Connotea 
Del.icio.us What's this?
This article has been cited by other articles:
|
|
 |
|
  G. J. Riely, M. G. Kris, D. Rosenbaum, J. Marks, A. Li, D. A. Chitale, K. Nafa, E. R. Riedel, M. Hsu, W. Pao, et al. Frequency and Distinctive Spectrum of KRAS Mutations in Never Smokers with Lung Adenocarcinoma Clin. Cancer Res., September 15, 2008; 14(18): 5731 - 5734. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. E. Wright, Y. Park, A. F. Subar, N. D. Freedman, D. Albanes, A. Hollenbeck, M. F. Leitzmann, and A. Schatzkin Intakes of Fruit, Vegetables, and Specific Botanical Groups in Relation to Lung Cancer Risk in the NIH-AARP Diet and Health Study Am. J. Epidemiol., September 12, 2008; (2008) kwn212v1. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 L. A. Loeb and C. C. Harris Advances in Chemical Carcinogenesis: A Historical Review and Prospective Cancer Res., September 1, 2008; 68(17): 6863 - 6872. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 L. Bunting and J. Boivin Knowledge about infertility risk factors, fertility myths and illusory benefits of healthy habits in young people Hum. Reprod., August 1, 2008; 23(8): 1858 - 1864. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 I. Stepanov, P. Upadhyaya, S. G. Carmella, R. Feuer, J. Jensen, D. K. Hatsukami, and S. S. Hecht Extensive Metabolic Activation of the Tobacco-Specific Carcinogen 4-(Methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-Pyridyl)-1-Butanone in Smokers Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., July 1, 2008; 17(7): 1764 - 1773. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S A Kenfield, E K Wei, M J Stampfer, B A Rosner, and G A Colditz Comparison of aspects of smoking among the four histological types of lung cancer Tob. Control, June 1, 2008; 17(3): 198 - 204. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J.-H. Park, D. Mangal, K. A. Tacka, A. M. Quinn, R. G. Harvey, I. A. Blair, and T. M. Penning Evidence for the aldo-keto reductase pathway of polycyclic aromatic trans-dihydrodiol activation in human lung A549 cells PNAS, May 13, 2008; 105(19): 6846 - 6851. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. A. El-Zein, M. Fenech, M. S. Lopez, M. R. Spitz, and C. J. Etzel Cytokinesis-Blocked Micronucleus Cytome Assay Biomarkers Identify Lung Cancer Cases Amongst Smokers Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., May 1, 2008; 17(5): 1111 - 1119. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. S. Hecht, P. W. Villalta, and J.B. Hochalter Analysis of phenanthrene diol epoxide mercapturic acid detoxification products in human urine: relevance to molecular epidemiology studies of glutathione S-transferase polymorphisms Carcinogenesis, May 1, 2008; 29(5): 937 - 943. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. Leyvraz, S. Pampallona, G. Martinelli, F. Ploner, L. Perey, S. Aversa, S. Peters, P. Brunsvig, A. Montes, A. Lange, et al. A Threefold Dose Intensity Treatment With Ifosfamide, Carboplatin, and Etoposide for Patients With Small Cell Lung Cancer: A Randomized Trial J Natl Cancer Inst, April 16, 2008; 100(8): 533 - 541. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
C. Cybulski, B. Masojc, D. Oszutowska, E. Jaworowska, T. Grodzki, P. Waloszczyk, P. Serwatowski, J. Pankowski, T. Huzarski, T. Byrski, et al. Constitutional CHEK2 mutations are associated with a decreased risk of lung and laryngeal cancers Carcinogenesis, April 1, 2008; 29(4): 762 - 765. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E. Baryshnikova, A. Destro, M. V. Infante, S. Cavuto, U. Cariboni, M. Alloisio, G. L. Ceresoli, R. Lutman, G. Brambilla, G. Chiesa, et al. Molecular Alterations in Spontaneous Sputum of Cancer-Free Heavy Smokers: Results from a Large Screening Program Clin. Cancer Res., March 15, 2008; 14(6): 1913 - 1919. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. Sasaki, F. Sata, S. Katoh, Y. Saijo, S. Nakajima, N. Washino, K. Konishi, S. Ban, M. Ishizuka, and R. Kishi Adverse Birth Outcomes Associated with Maternal Smoking and Polymorphisms in the N-Nitrosamine-Metabolizing Enzyme Genes NQO1 and CYP2E1 Am. J. Epidemiol., March 15, 2008; 167(6): 719 - 726. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 H. Tang, S. Wang, L. Ma, X. Meng, Z. Deng, D. Zhang, C. Ma, and P. Xu A Novel Gene, Encoding 6-Hydroxy-3-Succinoylpyridine Hydroxylase, Involved in Nicotine Degradation by Pseudomonas putida Strain S16 Appl. Envir. Microbiol., March 1, 2008; 74(5): 1567 - 1574. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J.-Y. Chung, J. Y. Kim, Y.-J. Kim, S. J. Jung, J.-E. Park, S. G. Lee, J. T. Kim, S. Oh, C. J. Lee, Y.-D. Yoon, et al. Cellular Defense Mechanisms against Benzo[a]pyrene in Testicular Leydig Cells: Implications of p53, Aryl-Hydrocarbon Receptor, and Cytochrome P450 1A1 Status Endocrinology, December 1, 2007; 148(12): 6134 - 6144. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E. M. Leslie, G. Ghibellini, K.-i. Nezasa, and K. L.R. Brouwer Biotransformation and transport of the tobacco-specific carcinogen 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK) in bile duct-cannulated wild-type and Mrp2/Abcc2-deficient (TR ) Wistar rats Carcinogenesis, December 1, 2007; 28(12): 2650 - 2656. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
E.L. Crawford, T. Blomquist, D.N. Mullins, Y. Yoon, D.R. Hernandez, M. Al-Bagdhadi, J. Ruiz, J. Hammersley, and J.C. Willey CEBPG regulates ERCC5/XPG expression in human bronchial epithelial cells and this regulation is modified by E2F1/YY1 interactions Carcinogenesis, December 1, 2007; 28(12): 2552 - 2559. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
R. Balansky, G. Ganchev, M. Iltcheva, V. E. Steele, F. D'Agostini, and S. De Flora Potent carcinogenicity of cigarette smoke in mice exposed early in life Carcinogenesis, October 1, 2007; 28(10): 2236 - 2243. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. E. Kushman, S. L. Kabler, S. Ahmad, J. Doehmer, C. S. Morrow, and A. J. Townsend Protective Efficacy of hGSTM1-1 against B[a]P and (+)- or ( )-B[a]P-7,8-Dihydrodiol Cytotoxicity, Mutagenicity, and Macromolecular Adducts in V79 Cells Coexpressing hCYP1A1 Toxicol. Sci., September 1, 2007; 99(1): 51 - 57. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
I.A. Lea, M.A. Jackson, X. Li, S. Bailey, S.D. Peddada, and J.K. Dunnick Genetic pathways and mutation profiles of human cancers: site- and exposure-specific patterns Carcinogenesis, September 1, 2007; 28(9): 1851 - 1858. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 A. J. Alberg, J. G. Ford, and J. M. Samet Epidemiology of Lung Cancer: ACCP Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guidelines (2nd Edition) Chest, September 1, 2007; 132(3_suppl): 29S - 55S. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. S. Hecht, S. G. Carmella, S. E. Murphy, W. T. Riley, C. Le, X. Luo, M. Mooney, and D. K. Hatsukami Similar Exposure to a Tobacco-Specific Carcinogen in Smokeless Tobacco Users and Cigarette Smokers Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., August 1, 2007; 16(8): 1567 - 1572. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. J. Stark, K. Rohde, J. E. Maher, B. A. Pizacani, C. W. Dent, R. Bard, S. G. Carmella, A. R. Benoit, N. M. Thomson, and S. S. Hecht The Impact of Clean Indoor Air Exemptions and Preemption Policies on the Prevalence of a Tobacco-Specific Lung Carcinogen Among Nonsmoking Bar and Restaurant Workers Am J Public Health, August 1, 2007; 97(8): 1457 - 1463. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. Majidi, H. A. Al-Wadei, T. Takahashi, and H. M. Schuller Nongenomic {beta} Estrogen Receptors Enhance {beta}1 Adrenergic Signaling Induced by the Nicotine-Derived Carcinogen 4-(Methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-Pyridyl)-1-Butanone in Human Small Airway Epithelial Cells Cancer Res., July 15, 2007; 67(14): 6863 - 6871. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
I. Stepanov, S. S. Hecht, B. Lindgren, P. Jacob III, M. Wilson, and N. L. Benowitz Relationship of Human Toenail Nicotine, Cotinine, and 4-(Methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-Pyridyl)-1-Butanol to Levels of These Biomarkers in Plasma and Urine Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., July 1, 2007; 16(7): 1382 - 1386. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
L. W. Chang, Y.-C. Chang, C.-C. Ho, M.-H. Tsai, and P. Lin Increase of carcinogenic risk via enhancement of cyclooxygenase-2 expression and hydroxyestradiol accumulation in human lung cells as a result of interaction between BaP and 17-beta estradiol Carcinogenesis, July 1, 2007; 28(7): 1606 - 1612. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Y. Wang, M. R. Spitz, J. J. Lee, M. Huang, S. M. Lippman, and X. Wu Nucleotide Excision Repair Pathway Genes and Oral Premalignant Lesions Clin. Cancer Res., June 15, 2007; 13(12): 3753 - 3758. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. Yang, C. B. Ambrosone, C.-C. Hong, J. Ahn, C. Rodriguez, M. J. Thun, and E. E. Calle Relationships between polymorphisms in NOS3 and MPO genes, cigarette smoking and risk of post-menopausal breast cancer Carcinogenesis, June 1, 2007; 28(6): 1247 - 1253. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 R. M. van den Berg, H. van Tinteren, N. van Zandwijk, C. Visser, A. Pasic, C. Kooi, T. G. Sutedja, P. Baas, K. Grunberg, W. J. Mooi, et al. The Influence of Fluticasone Inhalation on Markers of Carcinogenesis in Bronchial Epithelium Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med., May 15, 2007; 175(10): 1061 - 1065. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. N. Wang, Z. Liu, H. Z. Tang, J. Meng, and P. Xu Characterization of environmentally friendly nicotine degradation by Pseudomonas putida biotype A strain S16 Microbiology, May 1, 2007; 153(5): 1556 - 1565. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 W. Liang, C. W. Binns, L. Jian, and A. H. Lee Does the Consumption of Green Tea Reduce the Risk of Lung Cancer Among Smokers? Evid. Based Complement. Altern. Med., March 1, 2007; 4(1): 17 - 22. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 J. Subramanian and R. Govindan Lung Cancer in Never Smokers: A Review J. Clin. Oncol., February 10, 2007; 25(5): 561 - 570. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
K. Alexandrov, M. Rojas, and C. Rolando DNA Damage by Benzo(a)pyrene in Human Cells Is Increased by Cigarette Smoke and Decreased by a Filter Containing Rosemary Extract, Which Lowers Free Radicals Cancer Res., December 15, 2006; 66(24): 11938 - 11945. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
I. Stepanov, R. Feuer, J. Jensen, D. Hatsukami, and S. S. Hecht Mass Spectrometric Quantitation of Nicotine, Cotinine, and 4-(Methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-Pyridyl)-1-Butanol in Human Toenails Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., December 1, 2006; 15(12): 2378 - 2383. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
W. Zhou, R. S. Heist, G. Liu, K. Asomaning, D. P. Miller, D. S. Neuberg, J. C. Wain, T. J. Lynch, and D. C. Christiani Second Hand Smoke Exposure and Survival in Early-Stage Non-Small-Cell Lung Cancer Patients Clin. Cancer Res., December 1, 2006; 12(23): 7187 - 7193. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. Laugesen and J. Fowles Marlboro UltraSmooth: a potentially reduced exposure cigarette? Tob. Control, December 1, 2006; 15(6): 430 - 435. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. S. Hecht Smoking and lung cancer--a new role for an old toxicant? PNAS, October 24, 2006; 103(43): 15725 - 15726. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. S. Hecht, S. G. Carmella, A. Yoder, M. Chen, Z.-z. Li, C. Le, R. Dayton, J. Jensen, and D. K. Hatsukami Comparison of polymorphisms in genes involved in polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon metabolism with urinary phenanthrene metabolite ratios in smokers. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., October 1, 2006; 15(10): 1805 - 1811. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
N. Gray The consequences of the unregulated cigarette. Tob. Control, October 1, 2006; 15(5): 405 - 408. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. G. Carmella, A. Yoder, and S. S. Hecht Combined Analysis of r-1,t-2,3,c-4-Tetrahydroxy-1,2,3,4-Tetrahydrophenanthrene and 4-(Methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-Pyridyl)-1-Butanol in Smokers' Plasma. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., August 1, 2006; 15(8): 1490 - 1494. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 M. N'Diaye, E. Le Ferrec, D. Lagadic-Gossmann, S. Corre, D. Gilot, V. Lecureur, P. Monteiro, C. Rauch, M.-D. Galibert, and O. Fardel Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor- and Calcium-dependent Induction of the Chemokine CCL1 by the Environmental Contaminant Benzo[a]pyrene J. Biol. Chem., July 21, 2006; 281(29): 19906 - 19915. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 C.-W. Hu, C.-J. Wang, L. W. Chang, and M.-R. Chao Clinical-Scale High-Throughput Analysis of Urinary 8-Oxo-7,8-Dihydro-2'-Deoxyguanosine by Isotope-Dilution Liquid Chromatography-Tandem Mass Spectrometry with On-Line Solid-Phase Extraction Clin. Chem., July 1, 2006; 52(7): 1381 - 1388. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
P. Ewing, B. Blomgren, A. Ryrfeldt, and P. Gerde Increasing Exposure Levels Cause an Abrupt Change in the Absorption and Metabolism of Acutely Inhaled Benzo(a)pyrene in the Isolated, Ventilated, and Perfused Lung of the Rat Toxicol. Sci., June 1, 2006; 91(2): 332 - 340. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
K. L. Lockett, M.C. Hall, P. E. Clark, S.-C. Chuang, B. Robinson, H.-Y. Lin, L.J. Su, and J. J. Hu DNA damage levels in prostate cancer cases and controls Carcinogenesis, June 1, 2006; 27(6): 1187 - 1193. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
Q. Zhang, P. Adiseshaiah, D. V. Kalvakolanu, and S. P. Reddy A Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase-regulated Akt-Independent Signaling Promotes Cigarette Smoke-induced FRA-1 Expression J. Biol. Chem., April 14, 2006; 281(15): 10174 - 10181. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
H. B. Ketelslegers, R. W.H. Gottschalk, R. W.L. Godschalk, A. M. Knaapen, F. J. van Schooten, R. F.M.H. Vlietinck, J. C.S. Kleinjans, and J. H.M. van Delft Interindividual variations in DNA adduct levels assessed by analysis of multiple genetic polymorphisms in smokers. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., April 1, 2006; 15(4): 624 - 629. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 S. S. Hecht DNA Adducts of Tobacco Smoke Carcinogens Am. Assoc. Cancer Res. Educ. Book, April 1, 2006; 2006(1): 217 - 222. [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 T. Walle, U. K. Walle, D. Sedmera, and M. Klausner BENZO[A]PYRENE-INDUCED ORAL CARCINOGENESIS AND CHEMOPREVENTION: STUDIES IN BIOENGINEERED HUMAN TISSUE Drug Metab. Dispos., March 1, 2006; 34(3): 346 - 350. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
J. E. Larsen, M. L. Colosimo, I. A. Yang, R. Bowman, P. V. Zimmerman, and K. M. Fong CYP1A1 Ile462Val and MPO G-463A interact to increase risk of adenocarcinoma but not squamous cell carcinoma of the lung Carcinogenesis, March 1, 2006; 27(3): 525 - 532. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
L. Xu and X. Deng Protein Kinase C{iota} Promotes Nicotine-induced Migration and Invasion of Cancer Cells via Phosphorylation of {micro}- and m-Calpains J. Biol. Chem., February 17, 2006; 281(7): 4457 - 4466. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
I. Stepanov, S. S. Hecht, G. Duca, and I. Mardari Uptake of the Tobacco-Specific Lung Carcinogen 4-(Methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-Butanone by Moldovan Children Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., January 1, 2006; 15(1): 7 - 11. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M.-R. Chao, C.-J. Wang, L. W. Chang, and C.-W. Hu Quantitative determination of urinary N7-ethylguanine in smokers and non-smokers using an isotope dilution liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry with on-line analyte enrichment Carcinogenesis, January 1, 2006; 27(1): 146 - 151. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
H. Chang, L. W. Chang, Y.-H. Cheng, W.-T. Tsai, M.-X. Tsai, and P. Lin Preferential Induction of CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 in CCSP-Positive Cells Toxicol. Sci., January 1, 2006; 89(1): 205 - 213. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 C. Liu, R. M. Russell, and X.-D. Wang Lycopene Supplementation Prevents Smoke-Induced Changes in p53, p53 Phosphorylation, Cell Proliferation, and Apoptosis in the Gastric Mucosa of Ferrets J. Nutr., January 1, 2006; 136(1): 106 - 111. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
A. M. Joseph, S. S. Hecht, S. E. Murphy, S. G. Carmella, C. T. Le, Y. Zhang, S. Han, and D. K. Hatsukami Relationships between Cigarette Consumption and Biomarkers of Tobacco Toxin Exposure Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., December 1, 2005; 14(12): 2963 - 2968. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
S. S. Hecht, M. Chen, A. Yoder, J. Jensen, D. Hatsukami, C. Le, and S. G. Carmella Longitudinal Study of Urinary Phenanthrene Metabolite Ratios: Effect of Smoking on the Diol Epoxide Pathway Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., December 1, 2005; 14(12): 2969 - 2974. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
M. Lodovici, S. Caldini, C. Luceri, F. Bambi, V. Boddi, and P. Dolara Active and Passive Smoking and Lifestyle Determinants of 8-Oxo-7,8-Dihydro-2'-Deoxyguanosine Levels in Human Leukocyte DNA Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., December 1, 2005; 14(12): 2975 - 2977. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
 |
|
 H. Hoffmann, J. Hogel, and G. Speit The effect of smoking on DNA effects in the comet assay: a meta-analysis Mutagenesis, November 1, 2005; 20(6): 455 - 466. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
|
|
|
|
|
|
|