© 1995 by Oxford University Press
Journal of the National Cancer Institute, Vol. 87, No. 23, 1767-1776,
December 6, 1995
© 1995 Oxford University Press
Intake of Carotenoids and Retino in Relation to Risk of Prostate Cancer
Channing Laboratory, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Alberigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, and Department of Nutrition, Hardvard School of Public Health Boston
Department of Nutrition and Department of Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health
Channing Laboratory, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Brigham, Women's Hospital, and Department of Nutrition and Department of Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health
Channing Laboratory, Department of Medicine, Harvard Medical School and Brighamand Women's Hospital, and Department of Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health
Correspondence to: Edward Giovannucci, M.D., Sc.D., Channing Laboratory, 180 Longwood Ave., Boston, MA 02115.
Background: Several human studies have observed a direct association between retinol (vitamin A) intake and risk of prostate cancer; other studies have found either an inverse association or no association of intake of 
-carotene (the major provitamin A) with risk of prostate cancer. Data regarding carotenoids other than -carotene in relation to prostate cancer risk are sparse. Purpose: We conducted a prospective cohort study to examine the relationship between the intake of various carotenoids, retinol, fruits, and vegetables and the risk of prostate cancer. Methods: Using responses to a validated, semiquantitative food-frequency questionnaire mailed to participants in the Health Professionals Follow-up Study in 1986, we assessed dietary intake for a 1-year period for a cohort of 47 894 eligible subjects initially free of diagnosed cancer. Follow-up questionnaires were sent to the entire cohort in 1988, 1990, and 1992. We calculated the relative risk (RR) for each of the upper categories of intake of a specific food or nutrient by dividing the incidence rate of prostate cancer among men in each of these categories by the rate among men in the lowest intake level. All P values resulted from two-sided tests. Results: Between 1986 and 1992, 812 new cases of prostate cancer, including 773 non-stage A1 cases, were documented. Intakes of the carotenoids -carotene, 
-carotene, lutein, and -cryp-toxanthin were not associated with risk of non-stage A1 prostate cancer; only lycopene intake was related to lower risk (age- and energy-adjusted RR = 0.79; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.64–0.99 for high versus low quintile of intake; P for trend =.04). Of 46 vegetables and fruits or related products, four were significantly associated with lower prostate cancer risk; of the four— tomato sauce (P for trend =.001), tomatoes (P for trend =.03), and pizza (P for trend =.05), but not strawberries— were primary sources of lycopene. Combined intake of tomatoes, tomato sauce, tomato juice, and pizza (which accounted for 82% of lycopene intake) was inversely associated with risk of prostate cancer (multivariate RR = 0.65; 95% CI = 0.44–0.95, for consumption frequency greater than 10 versus less than 1.5 servings per week; P for trend =.01) and advanced (stages C and D) prostate cancers (multivariate RR = 0.47; 95% CI = 0.22–1.00; P for trend =.03). No consistent association was observed for dietary retinol and risk of prostate cancer. Conclusions: These findings suggest that intake of lycopene or other compounds in tomatoes may reduce prostate cancer risk, but other measured carotenoids are unrelated to risk. Implications: Our findings support recommendations to increase vegetable and fruit consumption to reduce cancer incidence but suggest that tomato-based foods may be especially beneficial regarding prostate cancer risk.
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J. D. Brooks, M. F. Goldberg, L. A. Nelson, D. Wu, and W. G. Nelson Identification of Potential Prostate Cancer Preventive Agents through Induction of Quinone Reductase in Vitro Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., September 1, 2002; 11(9): 868 - 875. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Shike, L. Latkany, E. Riedel, M. Fleisher, A. Schatzkin, E. Lanza, D. Corle, and C. B. Begg Lack of Effect of a Low-Fat, High-Fruit, -Vegetable, and -Fiber Diet on Serum Prostate-Specific Antigen of Men Without Prostate Cancer: Results From a Randomized Trial J. Clin. Oncol., September 1, 2002; 20(17): 3592 - 3598. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 K. M. Fairfield and R. H. Fletcher Vitamins for Chronic Disease Prevention in Adults: Scientific Review JAMA, June 19, 2002; 287(23): 3116 - 3126. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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E.-S. Hwang and P. E. Bowen Can the Consumption of Tomatoes or Lycopene Reduce Cancer Risk? Integr Cancer Ther, June 1, 2002; 1(2): 121 - 132. [Abstract] [PDF]
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T. M. Vogt, S. T. Mayne, B. I. Graubard, C. A. Swanson, A. L. Sowell, J. B. Schoenberg, G. M. Swanson, R. S. Greenberg, R. N. Hoover, R. B. Hayes, et al. Serum Lycopene, Other Serum Carotenoids, and Risk of Prostate Cancer in US Blacks and Whites Am. J. Epidemiol., June 1, 2002; 155(11): 1023 - 1032. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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N. Kuwajerwala, E. Cifuentes, S. Gautam, M. Menon, E. R. Barrack, and G. P. V. Reddy Resveratrol Induces Prostate Cancer Cell Entry into S Phase and Inhibits DNA Synthesis Cancer Res., May 1, 2002; 62(9): 2488 - 2492. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. Giovannucci, E. B. Rimm, Y. Liu, M. J. Stampfer, and W. C. Willett A Prospective Study of Tomato Products, Lycopene, and Prostate Cancer Risk J Natl Cancer Inst, March 6, 2002; 94(5): 391 - 398. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. Chen, M. Stacewicz-Sapuntzakis, C. Duncan, R. Sharifi, L. Ghosh, R. v. Breemen, D. Ashton, and P. E. Bowen Oxidative DNA Damage in Prostate Cancer Patients Consuming Tomato Sauce-Based Entrees as a Whole-Food Intervention J Natl Cancer Inst, December 19, 2001; 93(24): 1872 - 1879. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. Curran-Celentano, B. R Hammond Jr, T. A Ciulla, D. A Cooper, L. M Pratt, and R. B Danis Relation between dietary intake, serum concentrations, and retinal concentrations of lutein and zeaxanthin in adults in a Midwest population Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, December 1, 2001; 74(6): 796 - 802. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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E. Kotake-Nara, M. Kushiro, H. Zhang, T. Sugawara, K. Miyashita, and A. Nagao Carotenoids Affect Proliferation of Human Prostate Cancer Cells J. Nutr., December 1, 2001; 131(12): 3303 - 3306. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. Hagenlocher, J. Nair, N. Becker, A. Korfmann, and H. Bartsch Influence of Dietary Fatty Acid, Vegetable, and Vitamin Intake on Etheno-DNA Adducts in White Blood Cells of Healthy Female Volunteers: A Pilot Study Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., November 1, 2001; 10(11): 1187 - 1191. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. Russell, J. R. Palmer, L. L. Adams-Campbell, and L. Rosenberg Follow-up of a Large Cohort of Black Women Am. J. Epidemiol., November 1, 2001; 154(9): 845 - 853. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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O. Kucuk, F. H. Sarkar, W. Sakr, Z. Djuric, M. N. Pollak, F. Khachik, Y.-W. Li, M. Banerjee, D. Grignon, J. S. Bertram, et al. Phase II Randomized Clinical Trial of Lycopene Supplementation before Radical Prostatectomy Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., August 1, 2001; 10(8): 861 - 868. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Q.-Y. Lu, J.-C. Hung, D. Heber, V. L. W. Go, V. E. Reuter, C. Cordon-Cardo, H. I. Scher, J. R. Marshall, and Z.-F. Zhang Inverse Associations between Plasma Lycopene and Other Carotenoids and Prostate Cancer Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., July 1, 2001; 10(7): 749 - 756. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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T. W.-M. Boileau, S. K. Clinton, S. Zaripheh, M. H. Monaco, S. M. Donovan, and J. W. Erdman Jr. Testosterone and Food Restriction Modulate Hepatic Lycopene Isomer Concentrations in Male F344 Rats J. Nutr., June 1, 2001; 131(6): 1746 - 1752. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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K. Imaida, S. Tamano, K. Kato, Y. Ikeda, M. Asamoto, S. Takahashi, Z. Nir, M. Murakoshi, H. Nishino, and T. Shirai Lack of chemopreventive effects of lycopene and curcumin on experimental rat prostate carcinogenesis Carcinogenesis, March 1, 2001; 22(3): 467 - 472. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. Giovannucci {{gamma}}-Tocopherol: a New Player in Prostate Cancer Prevention? J Natl Cancer Inst, December 20, 2000; 92(24): 1966 - 1967. [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. A. Platz, E. B. Rimm, W. C. Willett, P. W. Kantoff, and E. Giovannucci Racial Variation in Prostate Cancer Incidence and in Hormonal System Markers Among Male Health Professionals J Natl Cancer Inst, December 20, 2000; 92(24): 2009 - 2017. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. L McCullough, D. Feskanich, E. B Rimm, E. L Giovannucci, A. Ascherio, J. N Variyam, D. Spiegelman, M. J Stampfer, and W. C Willett Adherence to the Dietary Guidelines for Americans and risk of major chronic disease in men Am. J. Clinical Nutrition, November 1, 2000; 72(5): 1223 - 1231. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. V. Rao and S. Agarwal Role of Antioxidant Lycopene in Cancer and Heart Disease J. Am. Coll. Nutr., October 1, 2000; 19(5): 563 - 569. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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W. Fawzi, M G. Herrera, and P. Nestel Tomato Intake in Relation to Mortality and Morbidity among Sudanese Children J. Nutr., October 1, 2000; 130(10): 2537 - 2542. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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 W. C. Willett Diet and Cancer Oncologist, October 1, 2000; 5(5): 393 - 404. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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 S. Agarwal and A. V. Rao Tomato lycopene and its role in human health and chronic diseases Can. Med. Assoc. J., September 1, 2000; 163(6): 739 - 744. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. N. Kolonel, J. H. Hankin, A. S. Whittemore, A. H. Wu, R. P. Gallagher, L. R. Wilkens, E. M. John, G. R. Howe, D. M. Dreon, D. W. West, et al. Vegetables, Fruits, Legumes and Prostate Cancer: A Multiethnic Case-Control Study Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev., August 1, 2000; 9(8): 795 - 804. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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T. W. M. Boileau, S. K. Clinton, and J. W. Erdman Jr. Tissue Lycopene Concentrations and Isomer Patterns Are Affected by Androgen Status and Dietary Lycopene Concentration in Male F344 Rats J. Nutr., June 1, 2000; 130(6): 1613 - 1618. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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K. H. v. h. Hof, B. C. J. de Boer, L. B. M. Tijburg, B. R. H. M. Lucius, I. Zijp, C. E. West, J. G. A. J. Hautvast, and J. A. Weststrate Carotenoid Bioavailability in Humans from Tomatoes Processed in Different Ways Determined from the Carotenoid Response in the Triglyceride-Rich Lipoprotein Fraction of Plasma after a Single Consumption and in Plasma after Four Days of Consumption J. Nutr., May 1, 2000; 130(5): 1189 - 1196. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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A. L. A. Ferreira, K.-J. Yeum, C. Liu, D. Smith, N. I. Krinsky, X.-D. Wang, and R. M. Russell Tissue Distribution of Lycopene in Ferrets and Rats after Lycopene Supplementation J. Nutr., May 1, 2000; 130(5): 1256 - 1260. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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R. Alba, M.-M. Cordonnier-Pratt, and L. H. Pratt Fruit-Localized Phytochromes Regulate Lycopene Accumulation Independently of Ethylene Production in Tomato Plant Physiology, May 1, 2000; 123(1): 363 - 370. [Abstract] [Full Text]
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